HACCP在小企业的问题 [复制链接]

4.2 Expertise

It is doubtful if any company can implement HACCP without specific training. This

is particularly true for the small company with limited access to information and often without

the time or skills to interpret textbook scenarios. Indeed, good HACCP literature is

restricted to a handful of user-friendly books amidst a plethora of watered down manuals of

limited use. The fundamentals of HACCP methodology are as necessary for the small

company as any other, and the typical short course (2 days) is an effective introduction to

the concept and the jargon. However, for the small business, without in-house technical

support, it is important not to ‘abandon trainees to their fate after the initial familiarisation is

completed’(Mossel, Jansen & Struijk, 1999) Further specialist help is required which will

consider the development, implementation and management of the system within the

constraints of the small business.

Statistics from the UK’s major provider of HACCP courses illustrate the limited

uptake and availability of even introductory level training.

e.g. Royal Institute of Public Health & Hygiene. Certificate in HACCP Principles.

Established 1995. Currently 31 centres in the UK with 4,220 candidates (Oct.99)

Given that there are 600,000 food premises within the UK, the majority of these being small

operations, this equates to a severe skills shortage.

Whereas competency in HACCP methodology can be effectively gained through

training this must be complemented with the appropriate knowledge of food microbiology

and food chemistry. Whilst the Codex Decision Tree, and other such hazard analysis tools,

are readily available they rely on the underlying technical expertise of the user

Research has shown that the employment of an experienced, technically qualified

person is the single most important factor influencing the implementation of HACCP (Holt,

1999). This is uncommon within a small business with the highest level of hygiene training for

most owner managers to be a six hour basic introduction. This has dire consequences when

HACCP studies are undertaken, for example/P>(a) A lack of ability to prioritise the risks from physical, microbiological and chemical

hazards. Given the time involved in hazard analysis it is important for small companies to

focus HACCP studies on the group(s) of hazards which pose the greatest threat to public

health. For example, caterers will focus their efforts on microbiological hazards whilst the

soft fruit grower will be more concerned with foreign body contamination. Many small

companies are unable to make these decisions and attempt to study all groups of hazards at

once; a process which invariably ends in confusion, overload and a dilution of control. This

scenario impinges on the wider debate as to how risk is perceived by, and communicated

to, both the food industry and consumer.

(b) The inability to distinguish between the relative risks of different pathogens on particular

foods. This leads directly to the common scenario where the HACCP studies involve every

pathogen ‘in the textbook’. For example, the sandwich manufacturer who spent many

weeks developing a HACCP plan to control the growth of Clostridium botulinum on

lettuce leaves - an anaerobe which would never grow in the presence of air.

(c) A lack of focus at the stage of hazard identification is compounded by the inability to

make technical decisions as to criticality. This results in too many CCP’s being identified.

This is a problem in many large organisations also, but its root within these companies is

usually the misinterpretation of methodology. This can easily be remedied with HACCP

training. For the small company the problem is insoluble without recognition of, and access

to, technical expertise.

4.3. Time and money

The typical small business can be described as having a busy, day to day existence

without designated staff to get involved in long term planning of non-essential activities i.e.

those not directly related to production. In larger companies the training and technical

departments often lead the HACCP project: most small companies do not have these

resources. It is evident therefore that even if owner-managers can be convinced of the

necessity for HACCP, the allocation of sufficient ‘time’ for its development becomes a

major constraining factor. This is compounded by the requirement for specific HACCP

training and the need to access the necessary technical expertise, as discussed above. To the

small business this translates into a heavy financial burden and most owners look to

Government or other agencies for external help at minimal cost. Whilst the ethics of this are

debatable the reality is that small and micro-businesses, in particular, do not feel they should

pay for change initiated externally.

The UK Government has recently attempted to support the large scale

implementation of HACCP in 7000 retail butchers . The project involved a two day training

course for groups of 20 butchers using material specifically adapted to suit the size and

nature of the business. This was followed by eight hours of one-to-one consultancy within

the butcher’s own premises. Whilst the training and consultancy was delivered free of charge

many butchers complained that ‘time was money’ and it was ‘costing too much’. Indeed,

many had to close their business to attend the training and meet with the consultants in the

evenings or on Sundays. Despite this massive investment it is likely that the butchers will still

need on-going support as they struggle to get to grips with HACCP implementation

4.4 Documentation

One of the criticisms made by small businesses trying to operate the HACCP

system is its requirement for documentation. For many, especially micro-businesses,

paperwork of any kind is a burden with verbal communication playing a major role in the

successful management of their businesses.

The message which must be sold to small companies is that HACCP (a) aims to

ensure food safety with the minimum necessary control (b) if correctly applied focuses

control at a small number of CCP’s and that (c) the necessary record keeping can be

integrated into existing practice (with minimal disruption) if managers believe it to make

good business sense.

It is noteworthy that both researchers and practitioners confirm that the excessive

documentation reported by companies, of all sizes, is usually associated with the system

being developed inappropriately (Moy, Kaferstein & Motarjemi, 1994. Taylor, 1999). This

highlights the need for effective training in HACCP methodology.

4.5 Validation

Identification of CCP’s must be followed by decisions as to how they can be

controlled effectively. In many companies, large and small, such decisions are often based

on custom and practice rather than on evidence. HACCP should be seen as an

opportunity to justify these practices using whatever means are available. Small companies

need not be daunted as many CCP’s are based on parameters, such as temperature and

time, which can be validated using simple experiments. Indeed, many owner-managers enjoy

this aspect of HACCP, feeling that they are taking control of food safety rather than being

pushed into change by external forces.

For example, a self employed butcher whilst undertaking HACCP training was

frustrated by the conflicting advice he received as to safe procedures for cooling cooked

hams. His trade organisation, enforcement officer, tutor and textbook all gave differing

views. After the training he bought a temperature probe and plotted the temperature of a

cooked ham at hourly intervals until it reached a safe temperature. He was shocked to find

that, even following the most stringent procedure recommended, this took over 17 hrs. He

subsequently reviewed and revised all his cooking and cooling procedures until he had

confidence that his practices were safe and the subsequent monitoring was valid. This

butcher, who had received no formal education for over 30 years, so enjoyed this research

exercise that he enrolled at his local University on a part-time MSc in Food Safety

Management.

It is invariably the case, however, that some critical limits, for example the shelf life

of new products, will need to be validated by technical experts and the small business must

access this expertise as and when necessary. Local educational institutions, trade

organisations and enforcement authorities are a useful starting point. It is important for the

small and micro-business in particular, with limited funds, to focus on specific problem areas

when seeking advice.

4.6 Verification

Once a HACCP plan has been developed and introduced into a food operation it

must be maintained on a continuous basis and auditing is a commonly used tool to ensure

this. However, for the owner-manager who is usually on site at all times and has visual

confidence that the system is running according to plan, this often appears to be a pointless,

double checking exercise. This is especially so for the micro-business and in particular for

the self-employed.

In addition to such routine auditing the HACCP plan also requires periodic review

to demonstrate that it is meeting its objective - producing safe food. The technical expertise

and costs associated with such an activity are outside the scope of most small businesses.

Perhaps the way forward for both verification of the system and reviews of validity should

fall into the formal remit of the enforcement officer’s routine visits.

4.7 Supplier vetting

Large companies invest considerable time and money into attempts to assure the

safety of food bought in from suppliers. This often involves detailed specifications,

Certificates of Analysis and on-site audits - any of which would pose logistical and technical

difficulties for the typical owner-manager. The smaller the company the greater the

problems, with many micro-businesses relying on negotiation through telephone contact and

buying form middle men who are themselves small businesses with little formal control over

food safety. Even those companies attempting to follow standard vetting procedures can fall

into difficulties if they lack an adequate knowledge of food science and statistics.

For example, a snack manufacturer was buying garlic flavouring on the basis that

each batch came accompanied with a Certificate of Analysis to show the absence of

Salmonella in 25g of product. Only after a major food poisoning outbreak, identifying this as

the source, did the sampling regime come into question: one 25g sample was tested per

tonne of product!

Such difficulties may be resolved in the future as formal accreditation for all but the

smallest businesses may become commonplace. This would allow purchasers, whatever

their size, to confidently rely on the external vetting of their suppliers by third parties.

5. Benefits

With little evidence of HACCP implementation in small companies it is difficult to make

anything other than assumptions regarding possible benefits of the system. There is,

however, growing anecdotal evidence from practitioners confirming the largely theoretical

benefits outlined below.

5.1 Confidence

Small businesses, without internal technical expertise, are vulnerable to take food

safety advise from anyone and everyone - even when they feel it to be unwarranted. If,

however, the company works through all the stages of a HACCP system then the outcome

is a thorough understanding of food safety issues affecting their business and confidence in

their products. This confidence allows managers to challenge the legitimacy of demands from

enforcement officers, external auditors and others, whilst at the same time tapping their

knowledge and experience to help review and refine the system. This level of

empowerment is a commonly quoted benefit from companies who have worked through

what they often describe as the torture of HACCP.

5.2 Reduced costs

HACCP effectively puts the entire food operation under the micro-scope and

although owner-managers complain that this is laborious, tedious work they also admit that

there are unexpected outcomes which save the company money. Identified areas include

reduced waste, better use of manpower and less documentation once focus is achieved.

5.3 Focus

HACCP is a useful lens with which to focus attention on the aspects of food

production that impact on food safety; and it is by filtering out the less essential controls that

management can give its full attention to the critical control points of the production process.

Managing by exception, through focusing on what is important, allows small companies to

maximise the benefits from their efforts.

5.4 Team building

The team based approach to problem solving, with involvement across the whole

organisation, is an explicit part of the HACCP system irrespective of company size. This

approach , of utilising fully the human resources across the company to develop solutions

through teams, can offer a powerful guide to future action in other areas of the business

operation.

5.5 Organisational development

Organisations need to develop in order to cope with the demands of change. The

successful achievement of a HACCP system necessitates changes in traditional approaches

to using the skills and knowledge of the workforce, in managing teams to solve problems,

and in developing a culture that is focused on safety rather than purely on output and costs.

The organisation that learns to change to accommodate HACCP can use the knowledge

and techniques developed to manage change in other areas. Indeed, for the small company

HACCP development and implementation may offer a cost effective method of gaining

modern management skills.

5.6 Legal protection

It is now widely accepted that HACCP presents the food industry with the most

effective management tool to secure safe food. As such the adoption of its principles will

offer a legal defence (in many countries) in the event of an outbreak of food borne disease.

5.7 Trading opportunities

Finally, HACCP is a clear benefit to those companies seeking to expand their

markets. This is very evident for those who attempt to supply large retailers (e.g.

supermarkets) whose contracts often require documented evidence of a HACCP system

from their suppliers - no matter how small. It is also becoming a pre-requisite for export

trading even in low volume, specialist markets.

6. Conclusions

It is doubtful if even the most ardent HACCP enthusiast would not conclude that,

from the perspective of the small company, the benefits of tomorrow are outweighed by the

burdens of today, as can be seen depicted in Fig. 1. Given that the food chain is only as

strong as its weakest link the economic survival of the entire food industry is jeopardised

unless the ‘scales are tipped’ to encourage the adoption of HACCP by small companies.

There are many measures at local, national and international level which could facilitate this,

a few of which are described below.

(a) Current research to develop workable blueprints and bench mark best practice are

encouraging, but it is important that relatively small investments are not wasted with

duplication of effort. Governments should work at an international level to co-ordinate

activities and disseminate results, perhaps under the auspices of the World Health

Organisation.

(b) Any pilot projects must be set in the context of thorough evaluation, with clearly

identified indicators of success. Practitioners should only be encouraged to change when

there is evidence that such change is both practical and achieving its aims. Just as medical

intervention is now moving toward an ‘evidence based approach’ so too should

‘experiments’ with managing food safety: there are as yet no validated model(s) for the

application of HACCP in small companies.

(c) In general terms, the nature of the risks inherent in the food industry must be

communicated more effectively to both producer and consumer. This falls within the remit of

local and national Government and is high on the agenda in many countries. At the present

time a combination of ignorance and optimism combine to block efforts to give safety the

high profile necessary to stimulate change.

(d) At a more practical level high quality HACCP training must be widely available, at an

appropriate cost, to all small companies. Whilst the principles remain the same for all food

operations their application needs skilled interpretation for small and particularly micro-

businesses. A developmental approach is suggested which concentrates on (1) the

installation of a fully operational system of Good Hygiene Practice (2) HACCP studies to

identify specific areas which need additional control (3) the development of valid CCP

control measures and monitoring routines and (4) appropriate systems of verification and

review. This would need to be phased in, over perhaps a period of years, and therefore

relies on an on-going support network at local level.

Each local area could develop a ‘HACCP Resource Centre’ which would provide

some of the essential requirements for successful implementation. This may include/P>directories of suitably qualified HACCP consultants, trainers and courses; funding

opportunities; discussion groups to share experiences; on-hand experts to examine specific

problems; and computers with access to the internet and HACCP software. Local

government offices or educational establishments would be suitable venues. A model of such

a centre has been recently established by the University of Central Lancashire to serve small

businesses in the NW of England. This is a community project funded by a range of

Government and private sources.

Finally, it must not be forgotten that the typical small company manager, who is often

the owner, is undoubtedly highly motivated to achieve the best possible standard for the

business. This commitment must be channelled into the application of HACCP principles in

order to secure safety across the entire food chain and can only be achieved if the food

industry, researchers, educators, enforcement agencies and Governments pool resources

and work toward a common goal.

7. Acknowledgements

The author would like to acknowledge the contribution of the UK Ministry of

Agriculture, Fisheries and Food (MAFF, Project Reference FS3214) for financial support

for part of this work. The views expressed do not necessarily reflect those of MAFF.

thank you very much![em07][em17]

you are welcome

翻译成中文就更好了·

的确,在小型食品企业中,实施基于HACCP的食品安全管理体系是非常困难的,尤其是在中国,首先是生产加工条件方面,其次是在人员能力、素质方面,第三实在资金保证方面,第四是在检(监)测设备设施方面都存在很多问题，还有我国普遍存在的信誉丧失问题，呵呵！ 好多好多，

英文俺们看不懂！咋办？！[em24][em23]

你真是一个英文天才！佩服佩服！[em17][em23]

英文版的看不懂，好象站在门外望着屋内的美餐，只能看着别人享用！